Why is grass green?

Grass and most other plants are green because they contain a pigment
known as chlorophyll. The chlorophyll is used in the process of
photosynthesis where a plant produces sugar in the presence of
sunlight. In fact the word 'photosynthesis' means literally to
synthesize or 'make' from light (photo).  There are, of course some
plants which do not contain chlorophyll, and these generally get their
nutrition (food) by other means.  Some examples are the fungi which
decompose dead, and sometimes living, tissue, for their food.
You will find that a green plant needs light to make food.  If the
source of light is cut off, the plant dies. Mushrooms, which are
fungi, do not require light to make food (they decompose matter
as I mentioned above) and you can find mushrooms growing in almost
total darkness.

The process of photosynthesis is described in great detail in many
science books.  It is really the process by which life as we know it
is able to continue and renew itself.

History of Laptop Computers - History

History of Laptop Computers - History

Left - Modern Laptop Today

It is a little hard to determine what was the first portable or laptop computer, the first portable computers did not look like the book-sized and folding laptops that we are familiar with today, however, they were both portable and lapable, and lead to the development of notebook style laptops. I have outlined several potential firsts below and how each qualifies, many of the off-site links provide good photos of the computers that will let you see the progression in design. 

The First Laptop? Maybe

Designed in 1979 by a Briton, William Moggridge, for Grid Systems Corporation, the Grid Compass was one fifth the weight of any model equivalent in performance and was used by NASA on the space shuttle program in the early 1980's. A 340K byte bubble memory lap-top computer with die-cast magnesium case and folding electroluminescent graphics display screen.

Gavilan Computer As The First Laptop?

Manny Fernandez had the idea for a well-designed laptop for executives who were starting to use computer. Fernandez, who started Gavilan Computer, promoted his machines as the first "laptop" computers in May 1983. Many historians consider the Gavilan as the first fully functional laptop computer.

The First Laptop Computer - Osborne 1 
The computer considered by most historians to be the first true portable computer was the Osborne 1. Adam Osborne, an ex-book publisher founded Osborne Computer and produced the Osborne 1 in 1981, a portable computer that weighed 24 pounds

and cost $1795. The Osborne 1 came with a five-inch screen, modem port, two 5 1/4 floppy drives, a large collection of bundled software programs, and a battery pack. The short-lived computer company was never successful. (second photo)

More History of Laptop Firsts

• In January of 1982, Microsoft's Kazuhiko Nishi and Bill Gates begin discussions on designing a portable computer, based on using a new liquid crystal display or LCDscreen. Kazuhiko Nishi later showed the prototype to Radio Shack who agree to manufacture the computer.
• In 1983, Radio Shack released the TRS-80 Model 100, a 4 lb. battery operated portable computer with a flat and more of a laptop design.
• In February 1984, IBM announced the IBM 5155 Portable Personal Computer.
• Three years later in 1986, Radio Shack released the improved and smaller TRS Model 200.
• In 1988, Compaq Computer introduces its first laptop PC with VGA graphics - theCompaq SLT/286.
• In 1989, NEC UltraLite was released, considered by some to be the first "notebook style" computer. It was a laptop size computer 
• which weighed under 5 lbs. (Photo)

In September 1989, Apple Computer released the first Macintosh Portable that later 

evolved into the Powerbook. ( photo)

·          In 1989, Zenith Data Systems released the Zenith MinisPort, a 6-pound laptop computer. (more Zenith laptops)

·          In October 1989, Compaq Computer released its first notebook PC, the Compaq LTE.

·         In March 1991, Microsoft released the Microsoft BallPoint Mouse that used both mouse and trackball technology in a pointing device designed for laptop computers.

·         In October 1991, Apple Computers released the Macintosh PowerBook 100, 140, and170 - all notebook style laptops. (more on Powerbooks)

·         In October 1992, IBM released its ThinkPad 700 laptop computer.

·        In 1992, Intel and Microsoft release APM or the Advanced Power Management specification for laptop computers.

·         In 1993, the first PDAs or Personal Digital Assistants are released. PDAs are pen-based hand-held computers.

Stump (cricket)

Stump is a term used in the sport of cricket where it has three different meanings:

1. part of the wicket, 2. a manner of dismissing a batsman, and 3. the end of the day's play ("stumps").

The stumps are three vertical posts which support two bails. The stumps and bails are usually made of wood, and together form a wicket at each end of the pitch. The overall width of each wicket is 9 inches (22.9 cm).




Part of the wicket

Each stump is 28 inches (71.1 cm) tall with maximum and minimum diameters of 1½ inches (3.81 cm) and 1⅜ inches (3.49 cm). They have a spike at one end for inserting into the ground, and the other end has a U-shaped 'through groove' to provide a resting place for the bails.

Each stump is referred to by a specific name:

• Off stump is the stump on the off side of the wicket (the same side as the batsman's bat).
• Middle (Lie) stump is the centre stump, on the lie of the wicket.
• Leg stump is the stump on the on side of the wicket (the same side as the batsman's legs).

These names are relative to the batsman, so a right-handed batsman's leg stump becomes the off stump when a left-hander is batting.

In modern professional play, the stumps are often emblazoned with a sponsor's logo. Although they are too far away from spectators to be seen, such logos are visible on television coverage.

For professional matches, often one or more of the stumps is hollow and contains a small television camera. This is aligned vertically, but can view through a small window on the side of the stump via a mirror. The so-called stump-cam gives a unique view of play for action replays, particularly when a batsman is bowled. Stump Cameras were first used in the 1992 Cricket World Cup in Australia and after the success of them they have been used ever since.

Manner of dismissing a batsman

In cricket, a batsman can be out stumped if:

• the wicket-keeper puts down the wicket, while the batsman is:
  • out of his ground (because he has moved down the pitch beyond the popping crease, usually in an attempt to hit the ball);
  • receiving a delivery which is not a no ball; and
  • not attempting a run.

Being "out of his ground" is defined as not having any part of the batsman's body or his bat touching the ground behind the crease - i.e., if his bat is slightly elevated from the floor despite being behind the crease then he would be considered out (if stumped). One of the fielding team (such as the wicket-keeper himself) must appeal for the wicket by asking the umpire. The appeal is normally directed to the square-leg umpire, who would be in the best position to adjudicate on the appeal.

Stumping is the fifth most common form of dismissal after caught, bowled, leg before wicket andrun out, though it is seen more commonly in Twenty20 cricket. It is governed by Law 39 of theLaws of cricket. It is usually seen when a medium or slow bowler is bowling, as with fast bowlers a wicket-keeper takes the ball too far back from the wicket to attempt a stumping. It requires co-operation between a bowler and wicket-keeper: the bowler must induce the batsman to move out of his ground, and the wicket-keeper must catch and break the wicket before the batsman realises he has missed the ball and makes his ground, i.e. places the bat or part of his body on the ground back behind the popping crease. If the bails are removed before the wicket-keeper has the ball, the batsman can still be stumped if the wicket-keeper removes one of the stumps from the ground, while holding the ball in his hand. The bowler is credited for the batsman's wicket, and the wicket-keeper is credited for the dismissal. A batsman may not be out stumped off a no ball, but may be stumped off a wide delivery.

Notes:

• "On the crease" is not "behind the crease".
• The wicket must be properly put down in accordance with Law 28 of the Laws of cricket: using either the ball itself or a hand or arm that is in possession of the ball. Note that since the ball itself can legally put down the wicket, a stumping is still valid even if the ball merely rebounds from the 'keeper and breaks the wicket, even though never controlled by him.
• The wicket-keeper must allow the ball to pass the stumps before taking it, unless it has touched either bat or batsman first.

End of the day's play

Stumps is also used as a term to mean the end of a day's play, e.g. "The umpires called stumps" means that the umpires have declared play over for the day. At the end of a session, i.e. before lunch or tea, the umpires will remove the bails; at the end of the day's play, the umpires will remove the stumps.

1